SCRIPT WRITING FOR TELEVISION

Script writing is the art and craft of writing scripts for mass media like television production, feature or documentary films.

We can also say this is the art of writing for different programme.

Basic rules for script writing

1.      Script writers must use A4 size papers

2.      Writers must use unrattling paper

3.      You must use only one side of the paper

4.      You must number all pages for easy reading

5.      Writers must have a copy of the script

6.      Copies made must be clean

Rules for double column T.V. script

A double column script is divided into two parts i.e. the video part and the audio part. The video part is on the left side and everything should be in capitals letters or uppercase except for the titles and graphics where they are to be shown. Anything that cannot be spoken should be written in capital letters.

The audio part is in the right side and everything here should be in small letters.

Camera shots, camera direction, transition types and names of all characters must be written in capital letters.

Writing for the eye and ears (audio visual)

1.      Broadcast writing should be brief

2.      Should retain an informal tone

3.      Be specific

4.      Writer should know he is writing for one person

5.      Be natural

Sample of a Television Script

SLAG: LAKE VICTORIA                                                  DATE: 19TH APRIL,2018 WRITER: MICH MAKYOTTO                                         TIME: 9:00 PM
VIDEO	AUDIO
OPENING CREDITS AVIATION STUDIO PRESENT LAKE VICTORIA TRANSITION:FADING IN ESTABLISHING SHOT OF LAKE VICTORIA LONG SHOT FISHERMEN IN BOAT	SFX  kisumu 100 NARR: Lake Victoria is the largest fresh water lake in Africa. NARR: It covers an area of 80,000 square km. It is 300 m deep. The lake is fed by permanent and seasonal rivers.
LONG SHOT FISHERMEN AT THE SHORE TRANSITION: FADING OUT MID SHOT FISHERMEN SELLING TO BUSINESS WOMEN	SFX  Tony Nyadundo NARR: The lake has improved the living standards of the people in a variety of ways. Fishermen selling fish to women.
LONG SHOT OF FISHERMEN REMOVING NETS FROM THE BOAT	NARR: Fishermen undergo a lot of challenges as they pull the net in the boat when it is full of fish
CLOSE UP SHOT OF WOMEN FRYING FISH	NARR: Business women fry and sell their fish to hotels and restaurants for a higher fee.
CLOSE UP SHOT OF FISH	NARR: Fish is important in the livelihood of the people who live around Lake Victoria. Not only is it nutritious but also brings in a lot of cash to people in Lake Victoria.
I/V FISHERMAN	VOICE: Today we had a good catch but during the rainy season we usually have a lot of problems. The government should try solve all these problems soon, for us to benefit more

PROGRAMME RUNNING ORDER

A running order is an elaborate document giving precise details of items, duration in and out or it could be a rough guide to what the producer and director expect and hope for in the program. A program running order has four columns.

Guide time column

This gives the recommended time of each item.

Item column

Gives the standard program format the producer works with when compiling the program.

Running time column

This is the exact duration of items in.

Elapsed time column

This the cumulative time of all the items which has to add up to the duration of the actual program.

Program: News                                                                                                   Tx Date: 12/05/2018

Producer: Mr. Makyotto                                                                                     Tx Time: 3:30 Pm

Presenter: Mich                                                                                                   Duration: 1 Min 30 Sec

Guide Time	Item	Running Time	Elapsed Time
30 sec 1 Min	M.A.T.I jingles   Signature tune 10 sec   3 teasers  20 sec News Brief    Local news 10 sec    International  20 sec    Business  10 sec    Sports 20 sec	30 sec 1 Min	30 sec 1 min 30 sec

Tx means transmission.

ELEMENTS OF NEWS

What is News? We cannot say we have one definition of news, as people from different society define news differently based on their way of life and culture. People from different parts of the world look at events differently therefore they will automatically define news based on their interest, way of life and upbringing. The following are definitions of news: News is an accurate timely report of an account that is relevant to the target audience. News is something the editor does not know. News is what my government says is news. News is facts or opinion of interest or importance.
News can be disseminated through print, online or broadcast media. For news to be taken seriously it must have the following elements or values.

News values or Elements of news

Impact: The significance, importance, or consequence of an event or trend; the greater the consequence, and the larger the number of people for whom an event is important the greater the newsworthiness.

Timeliness: The more recent, the more newsworthy. In some cases, timeliness is relative. An event may have occurred in the past but only have been learned about recently.

Relevance: The event must be of greatest important to the audience for them to take an interest.

Prominence: Occurrences featuring well-know individuals or institutions are newsworthy. Being well known may spring either from the power the person or institution possess – the president or from celebrity

Proximity: Closeness of the occurrence to the audience may be gauged either geographically – close by events, all other things being equal, are more important than distant ones – or in terms of the assumed values, interest and expectations of the news audience.

The Bizarre/oddity: The unusual, unorthodox, or unexpected attracts attention.

Conflict: Controversy and open clashes are newsworthy, inviting attention on their own, almost regardless of what the conflict is over. Conflict reveals underlying causes of disagreement between individuals and institutions in a society.

Currency: Occasionally something becomes an idea whose time has come. The matter assumes a life of its own and for a time assumes momentum in news reportage.

Human Interest: Those stories that have more of an entertainment factor versus any of the above - not that some of the other news values cannot have an entertainment value.

Drama: Dramatical occurrences do insert news pegs in events. Eg a conference that was going on diplomatically may not make news until one participant decides to shout and throw chairs at the speaker.

 Consequence:  Does the subject of the story you are telling have an impact on people’s lives?

 Negativity: something bad often makes news than a good occurrence.

BROADCAST STYLES

All broadcasting stations have different ways of presenting and packaging their items. Even though they differ, most of them agree that good style is always whatever makes sense. Just like the way people have different styles of doing things same applies with most broadcast organization.

Clichés

These are words or phrases that have been over used to appoint they have lost their value or importance. Most of the times clichés make a very significant story sound common and very dull. Examples of clichés are fell on deaf ears, given the green light, mine of information, vanish into thin air, writing on the wall among others.

Journalese

This is a method used by newspaper journalist to fill up space in their articles when inspiration have gone dry. Most of the times they usually use clichés and metaphor in their stories to ensure they reach the required length.

Adjective

They are words which describe a noun. The number of adjective you use in your item will be determined by your media house style and image. Adjective usually adds colour to an article. Adjectives are important in articles just like salt in food. The right amount of adjective gives life to a story, too much of it makes an items sounds like a novel and a story without adjectives is dull and flat. So, use adjectives well.

Quotations

Most of the times quotations usually add flavor to an item as it gives the audience the actual words or phrases said. In broadcasting it is kind of tricky as it is hard for the audience to know when it starts and end. So, it is up to the presenter to ensure they are kept short, clear and they pause for some seconds before they quote.

Attribution

In broadcasting every information should be attributed clearly so that the audience knows who actually said them.  Attribution should be done properly because audience can never refer back in broadcasting. If it is done badly then it spoils the item.

Usually the message is more important than the one who said it. So, the information should be run first. But where the person is widely known then start with his or her name.

Hyperbole

This is also known as exaggeration. In broadcasting it is wrong to hype stories. They should be told to the audience truthful without adding anything. Hype stories are always unpleasant and should not be used.

Contentious statements

These are statements which are controversial. As a broadcaster always attribute contentious statements clearly and begin with the name of the person who said the statement. This is always safe for the presenter and station as the audience will know those are not their opinion. Here attribution is very important and should be properly.

Redundancies

These are words which are useless and only add up the number of words in a copy. These words should be done away with. One such word which is commonly used is, ‘that’. Other redundant words are eye witness, end result among others.

Abbreviations

In broadcasting only use abbreviations which are commonly known all over the world like Mr and Mrs. Any other abbreviations should not be used and should read out in full. And when abbreviations are used they should be hyphenated example K-P-A, unless they form acronyms they should be left the way they are, example MATI.

Proof reading

All copies in broadcast journalism should be read out loud to check if it makes sense to the ear. A good copy should always be one that is easy to read and one without mistakes. Here all personnel who are involved in making the item should proof read and verify it makes sense before it reaches the audience.

Homonyms

These are words which sound the same but have different meaning. Whenever these words are used, one should be careful. When you use the wrong word the meaning of that sentence changes totally. Examples of homonyms are pick and peak, might and mite etc.

Pronouns

Whenever one is using pronouns extra care and discipline should be exercised in order not to confuse the audience. Always use someone’s name first then pronoun.

Immediacy

Broadcast has the strength of immediacy. This means as events happen they reach the audience fast. Immediacy is heighten by using present or perfect tenses in broadcasting. What is aired today in broadcasting will be read tomorrow in the newspaper.

Positive

In broadcasting news should be presented and expressed in an active and positive way. News is always active.

Repetition

Repeating words in a sentence a couple of times always makes it boring and should be avoided. Try find an alternative word but if one cannot be found it is ok to repeat.

Punctuation

Items in broadcasting are written to be read out loud and should be done properly. Sentences should be short and their meaning intact. This is done by punctuating the item well with visible pauses. Comma and full stops may look similar. So, it is better to use ellipsis…….dash------ for longer pause.

NATIONAL AND NATIONALISM

Nations and Nationalism

A  nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent(ancestry0 , or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders.

It can also refer to people who share a common territory and government (for example the inhabitants of a sovereign state) irrespective of their ethnic make-up.

In international relations, nation can refer to a country or sovereign state.

According to Joseph Stalin writing in 1913 in Marxism and the National Question: "a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or temporary assembly, but a stable community of people"; "a common language is one of the characteristic features of a nation"; "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people living together generation after generation"; "a common territory is one of the characteristic features of a nation"; "a common economic life, economic cohesion, is one of the characteristic features of a nation"; "a common psychological make-up, which manifests itself in a common culture, is one of the characteristic features of a nation"; "A nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture

An alternative view, expressed by Otto Bauer is that "A nation is an aggregate of people bound into a community of character by a common destiny.

Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a nation.

There are two main perspectives on the origins and basis of nationalism:

Primordialist perspective that describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient and perceived evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct grouping based on an affinity of birth;

Modernist  perspective that describes nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however, which leads to several different strands of nationalism.

 It can be a belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic, cultural, religious, or identity group, or that multinationality in a single state should necessarily comprise the right to express and exercise national identity even by minorities

The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development, has commonly been the result of a response by an influential group or groups that is unsatisfied with traditional identities due to inconsistency between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members, resulting in a situation of anomie that nationalists seek to resolve. This anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. This development may be the result of internal structural issues or the result of resentment by an existing group or groups towards other communities, especially foreign powers that are deemed to be controlling them.

Nationalism may involve several recognized nations being involved in a single goal of self-determination uniting the nations, such as binationalism or multinationalism, examples of this occurred in Austria-Hungary, Belgium, and Czechoslovakia.

National flags, national anthems, and other symbols of national identity are commonly considered highly important symbols of the national community.

^{Varieties of nationalism}

Civic nationalism

Civic nationalism (also known as liberal nationalism) defines the nation as an association of people who identify themselves as belonging to the nation, who have equal and shared political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures.

 According to the principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry, but is a political entity whose core identity is not ethnicity.

Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic nationalism. Membership of the civic nation is considered voluntary,

Ethnocentrism

Whereas nationalism does not necessarily imply a belief in the superiority of one ethnicity over others, some nationalists support ethnocentric protectionism or ethnocentric supremacy. Studies have yielded evidence that such behaviour may be derived from innate preferences in humans from infancy.

This is judging another culture solely from the values and standards of one’s own culture

Fascism

Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek elevation of their nation based on commitment to an organic national community where its individuals are united together as one people in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry and culture through a totalitarian state that seeks the mass mobilization of a nation through discipline, war, indoctrination, physical training.

 Fascism seeks to eradicate perceived foreign influences that are deemed to be causing degeneration of the nation or of not fitting into the national culture.

National purity

Some nationalists exclude certain groups. Some nationalists, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these), may then seek to deem certain minorities as not truly being a part of the 'national community' as they define it. Sometimes a mythic homeland is more important for the national identity than the actual territory occupied by the nation. This could be seen in some single race countries such as South Korea where the nation comprises people from one race, and where mythical origins of the 'race of the land' are pervasive amongst the populace.

Left-wing nationalism

Left-wing nationalism (occasionally known as socialist nationalism  refers to any political movement that combines left-wing politics with nationalism. Many nationalist movements are dedicated to national liberation, in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise self-determination by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors.

Territorial nationalism

Territorial nationalists assume that all inhabitants of a particular nation owe allegiance to their country of birth or adoption. A sacred quality is sought in the nation and in the popular memories it evokes. Citizenship is idealized by territorial nationalist^.  A criterion of a territorial nationalism is the establishment of a mass, public culture based on common values and traditions of the population as in Brazil

Pan-nationalism

Pan-nationalism is unique in that it covers a large area span. Pan-nationalism focuses more on "clusters" of ethnic groups.

Proto-nationalism

Proto-nationalism refers to the nationalism that people feel for a connection to a particular indigenous or ethnic identity which is unconnected from the national identity. It also refers to a "nationalism" that existed before the foundation of a nation-state. It thus describes a nation-less nationalism.

Ultra-nationalism

Ultranationalism is a  zealous nationalism that expresses extremist support for one's nationalist ideals. It is often characterized by authoritarianism, efforts toward reduction or stoppage of immigration, expulsion and or oppression of non-native populations or minorities within the nation or its territories, emotionalism, real, or imagined enemies, predicating the existence of threats to the survival of the native, dominant or otherwise idealized national ethnicity or population group.

Instigation or extremist reaction to crack-down policies in law enforcement, efforts to limit international trade through tariffs, tight control over businesses and production, militarism, populism and propaganda. Prevalent ultranationalism typically leads to or is the result of conflict within a state, and or between states, and is identified as a condition of pre-war in national politics

Anti-colonial nationalism

This form of nationalism came about during the decolonialisation of the post war period. It was a reaction mainly in Africa and Asia against being subdued by foreign powers. This form of nationalism took many guises, including the peaceful passive resistance movement led by Gandhi in the Indian subcontinent .

 Benedict Anderson argued that anti-colonial nationalism is grounded in the experience of literate and bilingual indigenous intellectuals fluent in the language of the imperial power, schooled in its "national" history, and staffing the colonial administrative cadres up to but not including its highest levels. Post-colonial national governments have been essentially indigenous forms of the previous imperial (royal) administration.

PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS

Parties and Party Systems

A party system is a concept in comparative political science concerning the system of government by political parties in a democratic country.

 The idea is that political parties have basic similarities: they control the government, have a stable base of mass popular support, and create internal mechanisms for controlling funding, information and nominations.

PARTY SYSTEMS

One-party system: this is a state where one party rules. Such states would include the remaining communist states of the world (Cuba, North Korea and China), and Iraq.

The old Soviet Union was a one party state.

One of the more common features of a one-party state is that the position of the ruling party is guaranteed in a constitution and all forms of political opposition are banned by law.

The ruling party controls all aspects of life within that state. The belief that a ruling party is all important to a state came from Lenin who believed that only one party - the Communists - could take the workers to their ultimate destiny and that the involvement of other parties would hinder this progress.

Two-party system: This is a state in which just two parties dominate. Other parties might exist but they have no political importance.

 America has the most obvious two-party political system with the Republicans and Democrats dominating the political scene.

For the system to work one of the parties must obtain a sufficient working majority after an election and it must be in a position to be able to govern without the support from the other party. A rotation of power is expected in this system.

The two-party system presents the voter with a simple choice and it is believed that the system promotes political moderation as the incumbent party must be able to appeal to the ‘floating voters’ within that country.

Those who do not support the system claim that it leads to unnecessary policy reversals if a party loses a election as the newly elected government seeks to impose its ‘mark’ on the country that has just elected it to power. Such sweeping reversals, it is claimed, cannot benefit the state in the short and long term.

Third parties, meaning a party other than one of the two dominant parties, are possible in two-party systems, but they are unlikely to exert much influence by gaining control of legislatures or by winning elections.

The multi-party system: as the title suggests, this is a system where more than two parties have some impact in a state’s political life.

A multi-party system can lead to a coalition government as Kenya, Germany and Zimbabwe have experienced.

In Germany these have provided reasonably stable governments and a successful coalition can introduce an effective system of checks and balances on the government that can promote political moderation.

Also many policy decisions take into account all views and interests. In Italy, coalition governments have not been a success; many have lasted less than one year.

In Israel, recent governments have relied on the support of extreme minority groups to form a coalition government and this has created its own problems with such support being withdrawn on a whim or if those extreme parties feel that their own specific views are not being given enough support.

Dominant-party system: this is different from a one-party system. A party is quite capable within the political structure of a state, to become dominant to such an extent that victory at elections is considered a formality. This was the case under the Kenyan government in the 90s.

In Kenya the elections of the 1987, 1992 and 1997’ were fought with competition from other parties - hence there can be no comparison with a one-party state.

During an extended stay in power, a dominant party can shape society through its policies.

THE KENYAN SITUATION

Kenya's system is one with characteristics comparable with a two-party system, since two dominant political parties.

Coalitions have dominated since the last general elections in 2007. However, it has been a multi-party system since 1992 and one of the ruling coalitions consists of several parties.

Kenya had over 160 registered political parties as of November 2007, but following the implementation of several Political Parties Acts starting with the 31 December 2008 act, the number has been coming down considerably since.

POLITICAL CULTURE

Political Culture

Political culture refers to what people believe and feel about government, and how they think people should act towards it. 

It can also be defined as attitudes, values, beliefs, and orientations that individuals in a society hold regarding their political system.

Types of political culture

1.) Moral Political Culture. In this culture type society is held to be more important than the individual. Individualism is not submerged in any way, but the group recognizes the need of individuals to assign value to the group.

Government tends to be seen as a positive force. This emphasizes the commonwealth conception as the basis for democratic government.  Politics is considered one of the great activities of man in the search for the "good society."  Good government is measured by the degree to which it promotes the public good.  Issues have an important place in the moralistic style of politics.  Politicians are expected not to profit from political activity.  

 Serving the community is the core of the political relationship even at the expense of individual loyalties and political friendships.  In practice this often results in more amateur participation in politics than in the other political cultures.  Upper New England, the Upper Middle West  and portions of the west are the central areas for this culture type.

2.) Individual Political Culture. In areas with this type of political culture, government is seen as having a very practical orientation. Government is instituted for largely utilitarian reasons.  It need not have any direct concern with questions of the "good society."  Emphasis on on limiting community/government intervention into private activities.  Government should be largely restricted to those areas which encourage private initiative.  Private concerns are more important than public concerns here. To a significant degree there is cynicism about government.   Dirty politics tends be accepted as a fact. The key to understanding this type is that people accept dirty politics as the way things are and should be. The Middle-Atlantic States through Illinois, and to the West, is the area most prevalent for this type of culture.

3.) Traditional Political Culture. Social and family ties are prominent where this type of political culture is found. This often means that some families run the government and others have little to say about it. This reflects an older attitude that embraces a hierarchical society as part of the natural order of things.  Government is seen as an actor with a positive role in the community, but the role is largely limited to securing the maintenance of the existing social order.  Political leaders play a largely conservative and custodial role rather than being innovative.  Otherwise, limited government is viewed as best because that is all that is required to meet the needs of those in power. The South is the regional focus for this type of culture. While undergoing change, traditional southern politics have been dominated by "backdoor" arrangements and strict class divisions.